USEFUL INFORMATION - Glossary of Fine Art Terms

 

The following Glossary of Fine Art Terms is provided by way of information only
and readers should reassure themselves as to accuracy before relying on it.

 

 

Abbreviations:
C: Century, as in 19thC     
qv : Refers to a related topic (Latin: quod vide  = which see)

 

 

With acknowledgement:
To The Oxford Dictionary of Art, The Concise Oxford Dictionary,
and many other reference sources

 

 

 

 

Abrasion
The damage to surface of a painting (qv) or other object as a result of rubbing, scraping or other wear.

 

Accent
The part or parts of a painting (qv) or drawing (qv) which have been highlighted so as to draw the attention of the viewer.

 

Accretion
A deposit on the surface of paintings (qv), furniture, or other works, caused by the accumulation of smoke, nicotine, dust or wax.

 

Acrylic
A fast-drying paint (qv) which can be easily removed with mineral spirits.

 

Active Flaking
See Flaking.

 

Aerial Perspective
See Perspective.

 

Age Cracking

A pattern of cracks caused by aging or movement. With paintings (qv) on canvas (qv) this creates a characteristic web pattern which can penetrate all paint (qv) layers and also appear as a darkened area(s) on the rear of the canvas. On wooden supports (qv) it can be seen as a grid pattern along the grain of the wood.

 

Age Toning

An overall brownish tone to old paper, often uniform but sometimes more pronounced in specific areas, e.g. the margins. Not to be confused with Foxing (qv).

 

All'antica
An artwork based on or influenced by classical Greek or Roman art. (From Italian: from the antique).

 

Alla Prima
A technique in which the final surface of a painting (qv) is completed in one sitting without any preliminary drawing (qv) or under-painting (qv). (From Italian: at the first).

 

Alto Rilievo
See Relief.

 

Analogous Colours
Any three neighbouring colours on the Colour Wheel (qv).

 

Anamorphosis

An optical technique commonly used in 16thC paintings (qv) and drawings (qv) whereby a figure or object is not depicted parallel to the viewer’s line of sight - the pictorial plane (qv) - but projected at an oblique angle to it, and so appears highly distorted. The viewer resolves the optical distortion by looking at the picture at the same oblique angle from a particular point. (From Greek: anamorphoo = transform).

 

Anhydrous
Free from water, especially water from crystallisation. (From Greek: anudros = water).

 

Antique
Specifically an object more than 100 years old. (From Latin: anticus = ancient).

 

Aquarelle
A painting (qv) in thin, usually transparent (qv), watercolours (qv). (From Latin: aqua = water).

 

Aquatint
In printmaking (qv), a method of etching (qv) a copper plate (qv) or matrix (qv) which produces a similar effect to watercolour painting (qv). Also an etching produced by the aquatint process. (From Italian: aqua tinta = coloured water).

 

Armature

A framework used to support a sculpture or other large work whilst it is being modelled. (From Latin: armatura = armour).

 

Arriccio

In fresco painting (qv), the preliminary layer of plaster laid slightly coarsely onto the masonry to provide a key (qv) or ‘grip’ for the intonaco (qv). It must be allowed to dry, usually for some days, before the final very thin, smooth layer, the intonaco, is applied and painted on whilst still wet.

 

Atmospheric Perspective
See Perspective.

 

Attribution
A specialist’s or expert’s judgement as to the authorship, date, or other aspect of authentication of a work of art.

 

Attribution Terms
A specialist’s or auction house’s opinion that a work of art:

 

	By (Name of Artist) Is or is probably a work by the named artist.
	Attributed to… Is probably in whole or in part by the named artist.
	Circle of… Is of the period of the named artist and showing his or her stylistic influence.
	Follower of… or Style of… Is executed in the style of the named artist.
	Manner of… Is in the style of the named artist but of a later date.
	School of… Was executed at the location and in the period specified, e.g. ‘19thC English School’. The term is usually accompanied by a place name and/or country and/or date.
	After… Is a copy of any date after a work by the named artist.
	Signed and/or Dated and/or Inscribed Is signed by and/or dated and/or inscribed by the named artist.
	Bears Signature and/or Bears Date and/or Bears Inscription Bears the signature and/or date and/or inscription by a hand other than that of the named artist.

 

Aureole
The halo or ‘glory’, usually shown in gold, surrounding the head or, occasionally, the whole body of a figure, in order to depict their holiness. Also referred to as a nimbus (qv). (From Latin: aureolus = golden, beautiful).

 

 

 

Bas Relief

See Relief.

 

Basso Rilievo
See Relief.

 

Batten - Battens - Battened
Narrow strips of wood attached across the grain on the back of wooden panels so as to provide extra rigidity and strength to the frame (qv).

 

Bevel - Bevels - Bevelled
The angle or inclination of a line or surface which meets another at any angle except 90°. (Possibly from Old French: baif = open mouthed).

 

Bevelled Edge(s)
See Bevel.

 

Binder - Binding

A substance that ensures paint pigments (qv), such as oil (qv) or acrylic (qv), adhere to one another.

 

Blind Stamp
An embossed mark, usually a seal, impressed without ink onto an artwork, typically a print, by the artist, the publisher, institution, or collector as a mark of authenticity or ownership.

 

Bloom
A dull, progressively opaque (qv) white or bluish-white ‘cloudiness’ that appears on varnished surfaces, caused the penetration of moisture or other pollutants.

 

Bodycolour

Any type of opaque (qv) water-soluble pigment (qv) or paint (qv)which has the covering power to obliterate underlying colour.

 

Bozzetto (plural: Bozetti)
Strictly speaking, a small three-dimensional model in wax or clay made by a sculptor in preparation for a larger, finished work. By extension, a rapid sketch in oil, made as a study for a larger picture. Like oil sketches (qv), these developmental ‘works in progress’ by highly regarded artists can be as much sought after as completed works: for example, the Museo dei Bozzetti in Pietrasanta, Italy, houses a collection of these sculptural models, and the Art Institute of Chicago held an exhibition of 11 of the wax or baked terracotta (qv) bozetti of Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini (Italian, 1598-1680) in 2004. (From Italian: sketch).

 

Bronze
An alloy of copper and tin used for sculpture (qv). From its earliest use in the weapons of antiquity, bronze has been the metal most commonly used to cast sculpture due to its strength, durability, and easy of working - both hot and cold - by a variety of processes.  Technically, bronze is an alloy of copper (usually c.90 per cent) and tin, often containing small amounts of other metals such as lead or zinc (qv).  Its lower melting point makes it easier to cast than copper and its great tensile strength makes possible the protrusion of unsupported parts (an advantage over marble sculpture).  The colour of bronze is affected by the proportion of tin or other metals present, and can vary from ‘silverish’ to a rich, coppery red. Its surface beauty becomes enhanced with age as it acquires a patina (qv). (From Italian: bronzo).

 

Broken Colour

Colour applied in small ‘dabs’ as opposed to the traditional method of smoothly blending colours and values (qv) together.  The term and technique were first used by Édouard Manet (French, 1832-1883) and, subsequently, by other French Impressionists of the 19thC.

 

Brushwork
The characteristic way each artist brushes paint (qv) onto a support (qv).

 

Buckling
The distortion of a painting (qv) on canvas (qv) characterised by folds or wrinkles in the corners of paintings. It is usually caused by shrinkage or compression or the movement of the wooden stretcher (qv) and will eventually cause damage if left untreated.

 

Burin

A burin is the essential tool used by engravers and relief (qv) printmakers. Its older English name, still often used, is a graver. The burin consists of a rounded handle and a tempered steel shaft, extending from the handle at an angle, and ending in a very sharp cutting tip. (From French: cold chisel).

 

 

 

 

Canon of Proportion

See Proportion.

 

Canvas

A woven, open-mesh fabric on which an oil painting (qv) is generally painted. Canvas, also called the support (qv), is usually made of linen, cotton or hemp. Works on canvas must be stretched, or supported, over bars or board, as it slackens over time.  The artwork will eventually need to be re-stretched - for the first 40 years or so oil paint is malleable and will yield as the canvas gradually slackens. Once the paint (qv) has finally dried and the canvas stretches this may result in flaking (qv) and cracking.

 

Cartoon

A full-scale preparatory drawing (qv) for a painting (qv), tapestry or fresco (qv).  In fresco painting, the design is transferred onto the wall by making small holes along the contour lines and then powdering them with charcoal (qv) in order to leave an outline on the surface to be painted. (From Italian: cartone = pasteboard).

 

Cartouche

A painted panel, usually ornate, on which an inscription is written. (From Italian: cartoccio).

 

Carving

See Sculpture.

 

Casein

Casein is a fast-drying, water-soluble paint derived from milk. It has been in use since ancient Egyptian times as a form of tempera (qv) paint and is still used today.   Visually it can resemble oil painting (qv) more than most other water-based paints and was widely used as the material of choice until the late 1960s when it was superceded by the arrival of acrylic (qv). (From Latin: caseus = milk).

 

Casting
The process of making a sculpture (qv). A liquid material such as clay or bronze (qv) is poured into a casting mould (qv), typically made from plaster, clay, or wax, and allowed to cool and harden, thereby taking on the shape of the confining mould.

 

Catalogue Raisonné

A documentary listing of all the works by an artist known at the date of its compilation. Typically it lists and/or shows the full range of work in sequence and is usually considered to be the prime and definitive source of information about an artist's work. (From French: catalogue raisonné =  reasoned catalogue, since it contains a rationale for the inclusion of each work).

 

Chiaroscuro
The dramatic use of light and shade (qv) to create a focal point in a painting (qv) or drawing (qv), especially where strong tonal (qv) contrasts are required. (From Italian: dark and light).

 

Chalk

A soft, white, porous sedimentary rock composed of the mineral calcite, a form of limestone. Used by artists throughout history as a medium (qv) with which to prepare quick preliminary sketches and, increasingly from the mid-16thC, in its own right for finished drawings (qv), its texture being preferred as it enabled the artist to draw exact lines and to portray the effects of light and shade (qv). Chalk is similar to pastel (qv) but more tightly bound.

 

Chalking

Paint (qv) which appears to be becoming powdery and look whitish in colour. It is usually caused either by poor technique (insufficient binding, qv, medium having been used in the paint) or subsequent damage to the paint layer.

 

Chamfer

The angle or inclination of a line or surface which meets another at any angle. Usually comprises two parts, an angled section (any angle other than 90°) and a perpendicular section (90°), to create a ‘slanted step’ - as opposed to a bevel (qv) which comprises the angled section only. See also Bevel. (From French: chant = edge + fraint = broken).

 

Charcoal
The residual material formed as a result of the slow heating of wood, usually willow, to create a soft, light, brittle, black material or stick that can be used for drawing (qv) or for preparing rough sketches (qv) on canvas (qv) prior to painting (qv). The resulting work must usually be preserved by the application of a fixative (qv).

 

Chassis
See Frame.

 

Chroma
The purity or intensity of colour (qv). (From Greek: khroma = colour).

 

Chromatics

The term sometimes used to describe the ‘Science of Colour’. (From Greek: khromaticos = colour).

 

Cire Perdue

See Lost Wax.

 

Classical Style
The term loosely used to describe the art of Ancient Greece and Rome as well as to any art based on logical, rational principles and deliberate composition.

 

Classicism
The term used to describe 19thC art that took its inspiration from the arts and culture of Ancient Greece and Rome and which had a profound influence on the visual arts, literature, fashion and politics of the time.

 

Collage
A technique involving the use of different, textured materials or objects glued together to create a work of art. (From French = gluing).

 

Colour(s)
Colour is the human visual perception of the hues (qv) we call red, yellow, blue etc. This perception stems from the varying spectral sensitivity/stimulation of different types of light receptors (cone cells) in the retina of the eye to different parts of the spectrum. The ‘Science of Colour’ is sometimes termed ‘Chromatics’.

 

Colour Theory
Colour Theory was first developed by Sir Issac Newton in 1671 (published in Opticks, 1704) and further theorised by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (Theory of Colours/Zur Farbenlehre, 1810). It is a set of principles used to create harmonious colours and combinational colour schemes based on the refraction of sunlight into its seven constituent colours - red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet - turned into a circle, known as the Colour Wheel (qv).

 

Colour Wheel
The Colour Wheel is a circular grid demonstrating the relationship of one colour to another:

 

	The three basic or ‘primary’ colours - red, yellow and blue - which cannot be mixed or formed from any other colour combinations, and from which all other colours can be created.
	The ‘secondary’ colours - green, orange and purple - which can be created by correctly mixing the primary colours.
	The ‘tertiary’ colours which can be created by correctly mixing the primary and secondary colours.

 

‘Complementary Colours’ are any two colours opposite each other on the Colour Wheel. Any three neighbouring colours are known as analogous colours.

 

Coloure

See Disegno.

 

Complementary Colours
Any two colours opposite each other on the colour wheel.

 

Composition
The organisation, design or placement of individual elements in a work of art, the aim typically being to achieve balance and proportionality. Usually applied to two-dimensional art.

 

Condition Report
A report prepared by an art specialist for the owner of a work of art, or the seller for a prospective buyer, describing its condition at the time of examination.

 

Constructing

See Sculpture.

 

Conté Sticks - Conté Crayons
A drawing (qv) medium (qv), square in cross-section, composed of compressed powdered graphite or charcoal mixed with a wax or clay base. Invented by Nicolas-Jacques Conté in 1795.

 

Contemporary Art - Contemporary Artist

Generally refers to any art made from the 1960s to the present day.

 

Contour
In the visual arts, a line which creates a boundary between an object or area of space in order to separate it from its surrounding space. (From French: outline).

 

Contrapposto

A method of portraying the human figure, especially in sculpture (qv): an asymmetrical pose in which the one part of the body is counterbalanced by another about the body's central axis so that it appears relaxed and mobile. The result is often a graceful S-curve. (From Italian: set against or counterpoise).

 

Copperplate Engraving

A method of printing using a copper plate (qv) into which a design has been cut by a sharp instrument such as a burin (qv) or an engraving produced in this way. Invented in Germany during the 1430s, the process is the second oldest graphic art after woodcut (qv). In German art it was developed in particular by Martin Schongauer (c.1448-1491) and Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528) and in Italian art by Antonio del Pollaiolo (c.1430-1498) and Andrea Mantegna (c.1431-1506). (From late Latin. cuprum/Latin: aes cyprium = ore from the island of Cyprus).

 

Corinthian
See Orders of Architecture.

 

Corner Joint(s)
See Strainer and Stretcher.

 

Cracking
See Craquelure.

 

Craquelure
The pattern of fine cracks that can appear in a painting (qv) or its varnish (qv), due to the shrinkage of the pigment (qv) and becoming brittle with age. Also called ‘Cracking’ or ‘Crazing’.

 

Cradle
A grid-like arrangement of wooden battens (qv) on the back of a wooden panel which may or may not have been structured so to allow some movement of the panel. And a tool used in printmaking (qv), also called a ‘rocker’.

 

Crayon

A stick of coloured wax, charcoal (qv), chalk (qv), or other materials used for drawing (qv).

 

Crazing
See Craquelure.

 

Crossbars
The wooden members of a stretcher (qv) or strainer (qv) to an oil painting (qv) which form one or more crosses between the four side members. Used to lend greater rigidity and improve tension.

 

Cross-Hatching

The creation of a sense of three-dimensionality (lights and darks, or shading) on a flat surface, especially in drawing (qv) and printmaking (qv) through the use of a set of lines drawn in one direction intersected by an overlapping set going in a different, often perpendicular, direction. Hatching (qv), by comparison, involves the use of a single set of parallel lines. 

 

Cockling
The wrinkling or puckering in paper supports (qv), caused by applying washes onto a flimsy or improperly-stretched surface.

 

Cupping - Cupped - Curling - Curled

The areas of oil paint (qv) and/or ground (qv) which form ‘cups’ or ‘islands’ whose edges have lifted or raised. Severely cupped or curled paint can distort the canvas (qv).

 

Curvilinear
Stressing the use of curved lines as opposed to rectilinear (qv) which stresses the use of straight lines.

 

 

 

 

Dead Colour
A term for colours used in under-painting (qv).

 

Deckle Edge
The ragged edge found on handmade papers.

 

Diluent(s)
A liquid, such as turpentine (qv), used to dilute oil paint (qv), or water for water-based media. (From Latin: diluere = to dilute).

 

Distemper
A type of paint (qv) made with powder colours mixed with yolk or white of egg, size (qv), etc instead of oil. Used for painting on plaster or chalk surfaces, such as for murals (qv). (From late Latin: distemperare = to soak).

 

Diptych
In medieval art a picture, often an altarpiece, consisting of two folding wings without a fixed central area, intended for display as a single work. (From Greek: diptychos = folded in two).

 

Disegno
In Renaissance art theory, the design of a painting (qv) seen in terms of drawing (qv), which was seen to be the basis of all art.  The term stressed not the literal drawing but the concept behind the work. As disegno appeals to the intellect, it was considered far more important that coloure (colour), which was seen as appealing to the senses and emotions. (From Italian: drawing or design).

 

Doric
See Orders of Architecture.

 

Draughtsman

One who excels at draughtsmanship .See Draughtsmanship.

 

Draughtsmanship - Draughtsman

Draughtsmanship is the ability and skill to accurately portray a subject on a flat surface through the use of three-dimensional perspective in order to convey a sense of credible depth as seen in real life. It has been considered the height of artistic accomplishment since Classical times and has always represented the cornerstone of all Western art and architecture.

 

Drawing
The creation of an image on paper or other surface using pencil (qv), pen, ink (qv), charcoal (qv) or other similar mediums, often with a linear quality rather than mass, and black and white rather than colour - the exception being pastel (qv).

 

Drypoint
An intaglio (qv) printmaking process, similar to engraving (qv), in which a sharp needle is used to draw on a metal plate (qv) or matrix (qv), raising a thin ridge of metal that creates a soft line when the plate is printed. Also, the resulting print.

 

 

 

École des Beaux-Arts (School of Fine Arts)
Refers to a number of influential art schools in France, the most famous of which remains the École Nationale Supérieure des Beaux-Arts in Paris, whose history spans more than 350 years. It trained many of the great artists in Europe and stressed the values of classical antiquity.

 

Edition
In printmaking (qv), the number of images made from a single plate (qv) as authorised by the original artist.

 

Egg Tempera

A water-based paint (qv) made from watercolour pigments (qv) ground with egg yolk. Used by the Ancient Greeks and Romans but later supplanted by oil. Also referred to as Tempera (qv).

 

En Face
In portraiture, a pose in which the sitter faces the viewer directly, full face.  (From French: opposite).

 

En Plein Air
See Plein Air.

 

Encaustic
The process of using pigments (qv) dissolved in hot wax as a medium for painting (qv); mostly used long ago but some contemporary artists (qv) have also used encaustic, such as Jasper Johns (American, born 1930).

 

Engraving
A method of printmaking (qv) used to create images on a hard wood or metal surface, usually by using a burin (qv) or graver to ‘etch’ the surface of a metal plate (qv) or matrix (qv). Ink (qv) is smeared over the finished plate and then wiped off, the ink remaining in the etched lines being transferred when the plate (qv) is pressed very firmly onto a sheet of paper. Also the resulting print.

 

Etch - Etched
See Engraving and Etching.

 

Etching
A method of printmaking (qv) in which strong acid is used to cut into the unprotected parts of a metal plate (qv) or matrix (qv), so as to create an image. The artist uses a burin (qv) or graver (qv) to draw on the surface of a copper or zinc (qv) plate. The plate is coated with an acid-resistant varnish or ‘ground’. As the artist draws, the varnish is removed leaving an image on the plate. The plate is immersed or ‘etched’ in acid, which reacts with the soft, exposed metal, creating grooves or sunken channels, which will hold the ink (qv). Ink is applied onto the plate, filling the grooves. The surface is wiped clean and the inked plate pressed onto moist paper, releasing the ink and creating the image in monotone (qv). In most cases, the plate is destroyed after an agreed number of prints have been produced, thus preventing the creation of any additional prints. Also the resulting print.

 

Extender
See Filler.